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Across three experiments we examined cross-cultural differences in the use of emoticons (Experiment 1) and emoji (Experiments 2 and 3) when sending text messages. In all ex- periments, participants wrote text messages to another person based on different hypo- thetical situations (varying in valence or face-threat). We assume that digital CMC cues can serve a face-management function. Hence, based on the assumption that East Asians, relative to Americans, tend to be more concerned with face-management, we expected East Asians to use more emoji and emoticons than Americans, especially in threatening situations. Our results supported our hypotheses: East Asians used significantly more CMC cues overall, and displayed greater situational sensitivity (i.e., used more situationally- congruent CMC cues). Moreover, there were significant, positive correlations between emoji use and scores on collectivism and interdependent self-construal. The preference for emoji use by East Asians does not appear to be a function of poorer English language proficiency; in Experiment 3 there was a significant positive correlation between ESL proficiency and emoji use. We discuss these findings in the context of past cross-cultural communication research as well as politeness theory and face-negotiation theory. 

Across three experiments we examined cross-cultural differences in the use of emoticons (Experiment 1) and emoji (Experiments 2 and 3) when sending text messages. In all experiments, participants wrote text messages to another person based on different hypothetical situations (varying in valence or face-threat). We assume that digital CMC cues can serve a face-management function. Hence, based on the assumption that East Asians, relative to Americans, tend to be more concerned with face-management, we expected East Asians to use more emoji and emoticons than Americans, especially in threatening situations. Our results supported our hypotheses: East Asians used significantly more CMC cues overall, and displayed greater situational sensitivity (i.e., used more situationally-congruent CMC cues). Moreover, there were significant, positive correlations between emoji use and scores on collectivism and interdependent self-construal. The preference for emoji use by East Asians does not appear to be a function of poorer English language ability; in Experiment 3 there was a significant positive correlation between ESL ability and emoji use. We discuss these findings in the context of past cross-cultural communication research as well as politeness theory and face-negotiation theory.